What is Executive Function and can it be improved?
In a general sense, the term ‘executive function’ refers to the cognitive processes and skills that enable people to plan, monitor and carry out their goals. These skills, thought to originate in the brain’s prefrontal cortex, direct actions, control behaviour and motivate people to execute their goals and to prepare for future events. Executive functions “help students to go beyond the content that is being taught, so that learning is process-based rather than only being outcome-based” (Meltzer, 2007).
Executive functioning is mediated by the prefrontal cortex of the human brain, which can be described as containing four major circuits:
The ‘what’ circuit controls working memory, helping the individual to execute plans, goals, and specific steps needed to complete a project;
The ‘when’ circuit controls the order in which they complete activities, and address timescales;
The ‘why’ circuit controls emotions as in what the individual thinks about and how they feel;
The ‘how’ circuit controls an individual’s awareness of their own feelings and experiences.
What are the executive functions?
There is general agreement that there are three core executive areas, which are inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al, 2000). These form the foundation of higher order executive functions which include reasoning, problem-solving and planning (Collins and Koechlin, 2012; Lunt et al, 2012). There are currently thought to be seven executive functions, which are:
Self-Awareness: this centres on self-directed attention and action, ie an awareness of what one is doing.
Inhibition: this includes impulse control and self-restraint. Its purpose is to redirect thoughts and behaviours which are not working successfully or are harmful.
Non-Verbal Working Memory: this refers to holding things in mind ‘in the face of distraction’ and includes mental imagery and an awareness of time. It guides behaviour through memory and anticipation.
Verbal Working Memory: this is the process through which internal speech is retained. It is displayed through talking to oneself either out loud or silently.
Emotional Regulation: this involves controlling and adapting one’s feelings that arise when evoked by particular events.
Motivational Regulation: this involves self-directed ‘intrinsic’ motivation without outside guidance or consequences.
Planning and Problem Solving: finding new approaches and solutions that can be refined, amended and updated to become more effective.
Executive functions allow people to analyse tasks and situations and plan how to address them. They do this by organising the steps needed to conduct the task, develop timescales for completing the task in a timely way and adapt plans and timescales flexibly and in response to unforeseen factors.
How and when do the executive functions develop?
The executive functions start to appear in the first year of a child’s life, developing throughout childhood and adolescence but most quickly during the primary school years. For most people they continue to develop until and even into adulthood, usually complete by 25 to 30 years old.
Executive functions are learned rather than inherent, and develop in a sequence with one skill building on the next. They interact on an ‘entourage’ basis in terms of supporting, enhancing and complementing each other. In doing this, they determine how the individual regulates their thoughts, feelings and behaviour in order to meet their goals and objectives.
How does difficulty with executive functioning present?
Individuals with executive functioning challenges find planning, problem-solving, organisation, and time management difficult. They are likely to find it difficult to organise themselves, materials and belongings, to start and finish tasks, to follow through multiple steps of a task in the right order and to regulate their emotions. They may find it difficult to make decisions logically, to stick to schedules and to persevere with tasks.
Although difficulties with executive functioning can appear similarly to symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and many people with ADHD struggle with one or more executive functions, they are not the same thing. A child with ADHD is likely to act in more impulsive, distractible and spontaneous ways than a child with executive function difficulties, who will demonstrate greater self-regulation and control of their emotions and behaviour.
Improving executive function
It's important to remember that executive functions are relatively slow to develop, often not being fully in place until the individual is well into adulthood. This means that for many children who struggle with executive function, their skills will naturally catch up over time and continue to improve as they develop and mature.
That said, the good news is that it is possible for the executive functions to be improved upon and supported, with the provision of specific strategies and interventions. Some are suggested below, under the broad area of concern.
Inhibition
Teaching the young person coping skills that can help them to think more rationally before reacting
Playing games which encourage self-restraint, such as ‘snap’
Modelling appropriate emotional control and responses
Explaining that things don’t always go to plan and jointly come up with a ‘plan B’ for common situations that the young person may face on a daily or regular basis
Encouraging the young person to identify their strengths and weaknesses for specific tasks or activities and using this to plan support.
Working Memory
Breaking multi-part instructions down into clear, single-part instructions and ask them one at a time. Ask the child or young person to repeat the instruction back
Playing games which encourage recall of information, such as ‘I went to the shops…’
Mnemonics can help the young person form associations that connect different details and make them more memorable
Cognitive Flexibility
Use of graphic organisers and visual timetables to inform the young person of what is due first/now/next and checklists to help them remember what they need to have or do
Offering the young person prompts, motivators and resources to start, persevere with and complete tasks
Playing games that encourage thinking ahead, such as ‘jenga’
Encouraging the young person to write tasks and responsibilities down and plan for their completion can help them keep track of them and organise themselves
Devising a reward system for successfully completing a task can increase motivation
Building in routines and increasing structure in everyday activities is often important to manage impulse control. With time, routine tasks and their completion become more automatic, reducing the need for independent initiation.
Limiting visual and auditory distractions, for example through strategic seating of the child and/or other students and placement of resources which may be distracting for them or conversely may help them maintain attention
Regular routines can help, as repeating the same tasks in the same order each day should form habits.
How can an Educational Psychologist (EP) help?
An EP assessment comprising consultation with parents, information from school and individual work can help clarify areas of strength and need and determine what adaptations, strategies and interventions may be necessary for the young person. See our frequently asked questions (FAQs) for parents and carers or contact us to find out how we at RocketEd work and how we can help.
