Attachment, Learning and Behaviour
Attachment was first described by psychologist John Bowlby (1969) as “the lasting psychological connectedness between human beings.” He noted that the earliest bonds formed by young infants with their caregivers impact on the way they see themselves and the world around them from childhood right into adulthood. Humans have a fundamental need to belong and to be attached to others.
Bowlby’s attachment theory was based upon four key tenets:
When children are confident that their primary caregiver will be available to them, they will be less prone to fear than those who are not confident.
This confidence is embedded during a critical stage of development beginning in infancy, through childhood and into adolescence.
The beliefs and expectations formed within this critical period remain largely unchanged throughout adulthood and for the rest of the person’s life.
Beliefs and expectations are directly related to the person’s experience. By this, he meant that children develop a belief that their caregiver will be responsive to their needs because they have been responsive in the past.
Bolwby identified four distinguishing characteristics of attachment:
Proximity maintenance, ie the desire to be near the people we are attached to
The need to return to the attachment figure as a safe haven for reassurance, comfort and safety when anxious or fearful, or faced with a threat
The attachment figure acting as a secure base from which the child can explore their environment;
Separation distress occuring in the absence of the attachment figure.
Bowlby believed that attachment serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving their chances of survival. He noted that the quality of the earliest relationship, that of a mother and her child, creates connections in the baby’s brain that lead them to learn that they are loved, protected, safe and secure within that as well as wider relationships. They have developed what we would call secure attachments.
Not all children experience secure attachments, however. As psychologists, we know that those who did not have a secure, early experience of love and empathy, who did not have their emotions regulated and soothed when they were very young, often find it very difficult to control and understand their own emotions, feelings and behaviours which can impact on how they later come to parent their own children. For example, children who have experienced trauma may have learned that their needs will not be met. This will result in developing an insecure style of attachment. Research by Bergin and Bergin (2009) estimate that about a third of children have an insecure attachment with at least one caregiver.
What are the four main types of attachment and how do they present?
In 1970, Ainsworth and partners conducted attachment research which became known as the ‘strange situation’ in which caregiver relationships between infants and parents were observed. This involved setting up pre-planned situations in which a mother, child and a stranger were introduced, separated and then reunited. Through this initial and later research different styles of attachment were identified, which are briefly summarised below.
Secure Attachments
This is the most common attachment style. It signifies a warm and loving bond between parent and child. The child feels loved and cared for and develops the ability to form healthy relationships with those around them. Children with secure attachments demonstrate confidence in their interactions with others and can build long-term secure relationships with others.
Children who are securely attached can depend on their caregivers. They demonstrate distress when separated from their primary caregivers and happiness when they are reunited. Although securely attached children might be upset when they are left, they are confident that their caregiver will return. When they are frightened, securely attached children are comfortable and able to seek reassurance from caregivers.
Anxious-Ambivalent Attachments
Children with anxious-ambivalent attachments are insecure in their relationships and they tend to distrust their caregivers although they seek their approval. They explore their environment with fear and trepidation rather than excitement, and may be ‘hypervigilant’ in the way they continuously observe their surroundings due to their fear of being abandoned. As adults, they can find it difficult to express love and connection, may feel unloved and can be emotionally dependent on others.
Avoidant Attachments
Children with avoidant attachments have learned that their emotional needs are likely to remain unmet. Research indicates that this attachment style can be a result of abusive or neglectful caregivers, or of negative patterns of caregiving and children in this category show no preference between their primary caregiver and a complete stranger and can actively avoid their parents or caregivers. As adults, they often struggle with expressing their feelings and find it hard to understand emotions. As they grew up feeling unloved and insignificant, they tend to avoid intimate relationships.
Disorganised Attachments
Disorganised attachment is a combination of avoidant and anxious attachment and children with this style of attachment can find it difficult to control their emotions, often displaying intense anger and rage. They have difficult relationships with caregivers and may avoid or resist them. Alongside this they typically demonstrate a disjointed, confused pattern of behaviour which can seem disorientated, muddled and unpredictable. They tend to avoid intimate relationships as adults.
So how does a child’s attachment style relate to their learning and ability to navigate the school environment? Well, we know that attachment and learning are inextricably linked. In order to fully engage in learning, children must feel secure enough to take risks, confident to be able to learn new things and resilient enough to face new challenges.
Attachment and Learning
Effective learners manage frustration and anxiety, have positive self-esteem and are able to ask for help when needed. Geddes (2006) points out that “the interaction between the teacher, the pupil and the learning task is a fluid dynamic whereby the task is a reflection of the teacher’s awareness and understanding of the pupil and the pupil is able to seek reliable support when challenged by the task. Each relates to the other in a way that fosters curiosity and supports the uncertainty that can be created by the challenges of ‘not knowing’ which is at the heart of all learning.”
We know that the quality of the pupil-teacher relationship is a key component in developing a positive emotional climate and an effective environment in which to learn. Teachers and other significant adults in a child’s life provide important attachments, and "close and supportive relationships with teachers have demonstrated the potential to mitigate the risk of negative outcomes for children who may otherwise have difficulty succeeding in school" (Driscoll and Pianta, 2010).
Similarly, Bergin and Bergin (2009) point out, “secure attachment is associated with higher attainment compared to insecure attachment. Secure attachment is also associated with greater emotional regulation, social competence, and willingness to take on challenges,” (Bergin and Bergin 2009). In other words, secure attachment relationships correlate strongly with higher academic attainment, more effective self-regulation and greater social competence.
How can schools support children with attachment difficulties?
The following links and resources provide useful further information and advice:
The Anna Freud Centre provides advice about what primary and secondary schools can do to support children and young people with attachment difficulties
Headteacher Update (June 2020) discusses whole-school approaches in practice
The PDF Attachment Based Classroom Strategies by clinical psychologist Dr George Harris offers a range of strategies that can be used in the classroom.
Recommended Further Reading
Inside I'm Hurting: Practical Strategies for Supporting Children with Attachment Difficulties in Schools by Louise Bomber (2007)
Settling Troubled Pupils to Learn: Why Relationships Matter in School by Louise Bomber & Dan Hughes (2013)
What About Me?: Inclusive Strategies to Support Pupils with Attachment Difficulties Make it Through the School Day by Louise Bomber (2011)
Attachment in the Classroom: The links between children's early experience, emotional well-being and performance in school: A Practical Guide for Schools by Heather Geddes (2005)
Observing Children with Attachment Difficulties in School: A Tool for Identifying and Supporting Emotional and Social Difficulties in Children Aged 5-11 by Kim Golding (2012)
The Teacher's Introduction to Attachment: Practical Essentials for Teachers, Carers and School Support Staff by Nicola Marshall (2014)
